The Evolution of Hinduism - From Vedic period to Modern era (Part I)

Introduction

Hinduism is the oldest living civilizational religion, with over 1.3 billion followers or 15-16% of the global population. Hinduism is also known as 'Sanatan Dharma', although modern usage. Another very important synonymous term for Hinduism is 'Vedic Dharma'.

In this blog post I shall be discussing the brief history of Hinduism but before that I must clarify that Hinduism started with the Vedic tradition. It was the Vedic tradition that grew and absorbed various non-Vedic elements from Non-Vedic traditions, which are predominantly found in the post Vedic Hinduism. Before that there were various independent cults across India. The 'Vaidik Dharma' unified these independent primeval traditions and brought them under a single diverse fold – "The Sanatan Umbrella".  

Evolutionary Stages of Hinduism:-

Orthodox Hinduism can be classified into the following evolutionary stages/ forms :-

1). Vedicism / ṚgVedic Hinduism (Hinduism of the Early-Vedic period).

2). Vedic-Brahmanism (Hinduism of the Later Vedic period). 

3). Pre-Classical Hinduism (Hinduism of the Post-Vedic/ Iron age era).

4). Classical Hinduism/Brahmanism (Hinduism of the Classical era). 

5). Medieval Hinduism.

6). Modern Hinduism. 

1). Vedicism (~3300 - 1900 BCE)

Vedicism/Vedism was the ancient tribal religion of the Indo-European tribe, Bharatas. Bharata was a subtribe of the Pūru tribal conglomerate, which inhabited the Saraswati-Drishadvati valley (modern day Haryana, Eastern Punjab and Northernmost part of Rajasthan). Vedicism emerged in the Sothi-Siswal culture of Early Harappan Civilization. 

The ṚgVeda which is a text of Bharata tribe, is a collection of hymns composed by the Vedic-Aryans. It is the only source available which tells us about the historical Vedic religion.

Vedicism was a ritual based Aryan religion that included various rituals such as fire ritual (Agnihotra), Soma rituals in which Soma was offered to the gods (Somayajna). Soma is both an intoxicant and a god itself, as is the sacrificial fire, Agni. The royal horse sacrifice (Ashvamedha) is a central rite in the Yajurveda.

There was no Varna system during the Vedic Religion. The terms Brāhmaṇa, 

Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdrā are not found in the ṚgVeda apart from the 10th Maṇḍala which belongs to the Later Vedic period. 

The word Brāhmaṇa occurs only once in the 1st Maṇḍala but it was used to refer Angirasas, the priestly clan of the Bharatas. 

Angirasa was the main priestly clan of the Bharatas which primarily composed the ṚgVeda.

Main deities of Vedicism

Vedicism was a henotheistic religion where the gods were personified concepts, who fall into two categories - the Devas and the Asuras. Asuras were moral deities and the Devas were natural deities

Major Devas were - Indra (the king of Gods and supreme God of the Vedic Aryans), Agni (fire), Usha (dawn), Surya, Savitar, Viṣṇu, Apas (water), etc. 

Major Asuras were - Váruṇa (the supreme Asura), Dyaus (Sky god), Mitra (contact), Aryaman, Bhaga, etc. 

Devas are identified as Younger gods and Asuras as Old gods (mentioned as "pūrve devāḥ").  Later in the Later Vedic period Asuras come to mean 'demons'. 

However, the term 'Deva' is even applied to the Asuras and the term 'Asura' is also applied to the Devas. 

Other important deities include Rudra (Proto-Shiva), Marutas, Ashvins and Pusha. 

The most important deity of the Vedic religion was Indra.  He was the supreme God of the Vedic Aryans. Around 289 hymns of the ṚgVeda are dedicated to him. 

2). Vedic-Brahmanism (~2000 - 1300 BCE)

Brahmanism developed out of Vedicism, during the Later-Vedic era, incorporating non-vedic ideas. This religion developed during the period of Kurus and it included the ṚgVedic corpus as well as Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, Vedic Sutras and Samhitas. 

During the Later Vedic period Brahmanism expanded to most of the Ganga valley and Punjab from the Kuru-Pañcāla region. 

It was during this time Varna system was introduced which was absent in the Vedic religion. The famous Purushasukta of the 10th Maṇḍala of ṚgVeda was also composed during this period, which mentions all the 4 varnas - Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdrā.

The Vedic rituals became very complex and the dominant position of Brahmans developed as an ideology in the Kuru-Pañcāla realm. Varna-based hierarchy is clearly visible in the Śrauta and the Dharma Sutras of Baudhayana, Āpstamba, Vasishtha and Gautama. There were strict rules and punishments for different Varnas.

During this period many Vedic Shakhas were established across North India. Important Shakhas include - Aitarya, Taittriya, Tandya, Jaiminiya, Shaunekiya and Katha. These Shakhas composed their own Samhitas, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, Śrauta Sutras , Dharmsutras, Griha Sutras and later the Upaniṣads. 

Deities and Mythology 

The earlier practices of Vedicism such as fire and Soma rituals and Ashwagandha Yajna continued annd became more complex. Indra and other gods still remained significant. The meaning of the term Asura changed from moral gods to demons. 

New deities such as Purusha (cosmic man), Vāc (goddess of sound) and Prajapati (creator God, Bramha) came into prominence. Earlier in the Ṛgveda the term Prajapati was used as an epithet for Vedic deities but in later vedic period it emerged as seperate creator deity who created gods and universe. 

Different texts have different stories of Prajapati and creationism, during this period he was considered as the father of all the Vedic deities. The famous "Hiraṇyagarbha Sūkta" he is the sole creator whereas according to other vedic texts he emanated from Purusha and created the universe with Vāc, the sound goddess. 

Vaishavism also developed during this period. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa principle avatars of Vedic deity Viṣṇu, -Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, and Vamana are listed. 

3). Pre-Classical, Post-Vedic Brahmanism (~1400 - ~400 BCE)

Pre-Classical Brahmanism emerged as the result of reformation in Later Vedic Brahmanism. The post-Vedic Iron age was the age of Upaniṣads and philosophies. It was during this age the Philosophical schools such as Sāmkhya,Nyaya, Vaeshishk and Uttara-Mimansa came into existence. 

These schools and the Upaniṣads denounced Ritualistic practices or Karma-Kānd of Vedic-Brahmanical texts. Atheistic and agnostic ideas emerged during this period. 

The philosophical revolution which gave birth to rich Hindu philosophies began in the late period with the advent of Rishi Kapila, Prajapati Prameshti and Yajñavalkya. Rishi Kapila, was a great thinker and an atheist who propounded Sāmkhya school of thought. 

Prajapati Prameshti composed the great Nāsadiya sukta of ṚgVeda (10th Maṇḍala) which shows skeptical questioning and unselfconscious humility before the great cosmic mysteries.

Yājnavakya, student of Uddalaka Aruni who was a great thinker and a Monist and the most figured sage in Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad. 

The rise of these great philosophers and questioners posed a serious threat to the Brahminical rituals. In order to counter this threat Sage Jaimini propounded the Mīmāṃsā school of thought. Though Mīmāṃsā is an atheistic school of thought that rejects the concept of a creator  and deities, but promotes the sacrificial rituals of Samhitas, Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas. The school is entirely based on non philosophical ritualistic part of the Vedas. 

Rishi Kanada and Gautama during this period founded atheistic schools of Vaeshishk and Nyaya. 

This form of Hinduism was based on contemplation and rational thinking. 

यदा पञ्चावतिष्ठन्ते ज्ञानानि मनसा सह ।
बुद्धिश्च न विचेष्टते तामाहुः परमां गतिम् ॥ १० ॥
तां योगमिति मन्यन्ते स्थिरामिन्द्रियधारणाम् ।
अप्रमत्तस्तदा भवति योगो हि प्रभवाप्ययौ ॥ ११ ॥^[25]

Only when Manas (mind) with thoughts and the five senses stand still,
and when Buddhi (intellect, power to reason) does not waver, that they call the highest path.
That is what one calls Yoga, the stillness of the senses, concentration of the mind,
It is not thoughtless heedless sluggishness, Yoga is creation and dissolution.

— Katha Upanishad, 2.6.10-11

Deities and Beliefs 

The concepts of Ātman amd Brāhmaṇa, Karma (not ritualistic Karma), Moksha, Dharma(righteousness) and probably Reincarnation appeared during this period. 

The Vedic deities + Shiva, Vishnu and Bramha were worshipped during this period. Idol worship emerged during this period as Panini's Aṣṭādhyāyī refers to the temples of Agni, Indra, Indrani(Indra's wife), Varuna, Varuni, Rudra, Bhavani, etc. 

Karma Kānd survives but gets diminished due to the rise of new philosophies and doctrines. 

Bhagvatism (worship of Sri Kṛṣṇa and his brothers) also arose during this period perhaps as  an unorthodox tradition, but later got accepted by the orthodox at the end of this period.